The Epic Of The Iliad - 1562 Words

Homer is the author of the Iliad and is known as the greatest Greek epic poet. He has had an enormous influence on the history of literature. The poem, Iliad, has been translated into different languages, one of which will be used in this paper, translated by Robert Fagles. The poem itself is about one simple word: rage. This anger that infuriates everyone is transformed into a war that will not stop until one side, either Greeks or Trojans, wins. With the majority of the Gods taking sides, the reader can see a combination of heroes and gods fighting side by side against the rival army. All heroes, except one, are described as hulking physical men. Thersites, on the other hand, is portrayed as a servant rather than a noble hero. His role†¦show more content†¦Thersites’ shameful appearance symbolizes his servant status and even influences how his opinions and thoughts are received by the rest of the army. Although Thersites is speaking with the truth, his low ranking, both socially and physically prevent others from agreeing with him. Homer does not give Thersites a father s name suggesting that he should be viewed as a commoner rather than a noble hero. However, he is given almost a rank and he was the one to suggest that all the men go back to their ships and head to their homeland ending this war at once, preventing any more deaths. Even if not seen by everyone in the army, Thersites is a common sense guy in which he thinks logically about the whole situation. Thersites stands up against the crowd and starts to question the reason behind the war. He turns to his comrades, their king, Agamemnon, and his officers, telling them that they had been sent on a fool s errand; chasing after a married woman, Helen, who ended up running off with young Paris. Thersites angrily yells at Agamemnon curious to know what Atrides is â€Å"panting† after this time and how greedy he is, since Atrides already had packed himself with â€Å"the lion’s

Alibr Essay Free Essays

Belonging Essay: â€Å"Sometimes it is hard to balance belonging to a group with keeping one’s own individual identity. † How has your study of the prescribed test and two texts of your own choosing either supported or conflicted with this idea? An essential element of belonging is one’s identity as it provides an understanding of the group to which one belongs. However, it is often difficult to retain one’s individuality while belonging to a particular community. We will write a custom essay sample on Alibr Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now This difficulty is evident in Sara Gavron’s film â€Å"Brick Lane† and Shaun Tan’s â€Å"Stick Figures† (Tales From Outer Suburbia), where both composer’s highlight the loss of individuality as a result of group conformation. In contrast, William Shakespeare’s play â€Å"As You Like It† demonstrates the converse as it highlights that it is possible to balance belonging to group while keeping one’s unique identity. As a result, by comparing the exploration of all three composers, a responder can enhance their understanding of the influences that affect one’s sense of belonging and identity. As one becomes part of a group an understanding of their own unique identity can often be enriched. This is evident in William Shakespeare’s play â€Å"As You like It† through Orlando, whose development of a sense of familial belonging empowers his own self-understanding. This is evident through the contrast between Orlando’s initial dejected state and final sense of status. This is evident through Orlando’s early despondence in the play in â€Å"in this world I fill up a place, which may be better supplied when I have made it empty. The impersonal tone associated with ‘a place’ alludes to Orlando’s own feeling of alienation and isolation as a result of a lack of connection with others. This is reinforced through the hollow connotations of ‘empty’ which accentuate Orlando’s lack of understanding of himself. However, this is contrasted with the conclusion of the play, as Orlando develops his sense of familial belongi ng with his brother Oliver. This sense of empowerment is evident in â€Å"you have my consent† where Orlando’s dominance is evidence through his approval of his brother’s wishes. This emphasises his enhanced status and identity, solely a result of his sense of belonging. As a result it can be seen that it is Orlando’s belonging to a group that nourishes his sense of identity. Antithetically, when a responder considers Sara Gavron’s film â€Å"Brick Lane† the converse of Shakespeare’s exploration becomes prominent. This evident when considering the character of Karim, a London-born Pakistani man. As a result of Karim’s cultural and religious heritage, he experiences a sense of alienation from the wider community as evident in â€Å"Go home Paki! † The derogatory term of ‘Paki’ compounded with the incensed tone created through the exclamation, Gavron demonstrates Karim’s social alienation. It is this isolation that yields his identity as evident in â€Å"this is my home. † The blunt nature of Karim’s statement highlights his resoluteness and confidence with his own unique multicultural self. Despite this, Karim’s identity begins to waver as he becomes part of a Muslim group that fights for understanding. This is evident through the contrast in costuming used by Gavron. Initially, she characterises Karim in a combination of western and Pakistani clothes, but as he joins the group, these western elements begin to disappear. This results in Karim conforming to the dress code of the other group members, implying the loss of his own unique identity as a result of his belonging. Hence, Gavron, unlike Shakespeare emphasises that one’s sense of identity can be lost through their connection with a group. In certain situations it is often difficult to retain a sense of unique identity while being part of a group. This is elucidated in Shaun Tan’s â€Å"Stick Figures† where the Stick Figures are shown to be alienated from their homeland due to industrialization. Tan emphasises that by belonging to this group of isolated individuals, a person can lose their sense of identity in â€Å"faceless clod. † The How to cite Alibr Essay, Essay examples

A Clockwork Orange by Antony Burgees Essay Example For Students

A Clockwork Orange by Antony Burgees Essay A Clockwork Orange by Antony Burgees(written 1962)1, Summary: The story is set in the seventies. The leading character and also the narrator is Alex, a very violent and cruel 15 year old boy. He and his friends Georgie, Pete and Dim murder, rob, torture and rape for fun. Alex is the leader of their gang. Alex and his friends arrive at an old cottage in the countryside and play a trick. Dim pretends to be wounded and an ambulance is very necessary. The trick works out, when the women opens the door the four rush in and torture her and her husband till they are lying on the floor. Then they leave the house. Alex loves Ludwig van Beethoven. Each time when he listen to his music he sees people who are murdered and woman who are raped. When he meets his friends he notices that there is some kind of tension between them. Then the start a new tour were they find a great house for playing a trick. They play the same trick but at that time the old woman in the house is suspicious and doesnt open the door. So Alex goes alone through the window. While he steals some things, the woman phones the police. As they meet each other they start fighting. Alex quite kills the old lady and the police arrest him. He is found guilty for murder and should go to prison for fourteen years. After almost two years in prison he hears about a new program which is called Ludovicos technique. It is supposed to change bad into good. So he volunteers for the program. They choose him and take him to a room where he has to see very cruel films, for example Japanese torture or the crimes of the Nazis. In some films they also play the music of Beethoven. He has to see two films per day and also gets injections. The injections makes him feel intense pain all in his body. As the time came when Alex only associates pain with the violent lifestyle he has, he is released. He enters a world which has totally changed since his arrest. He goes to the library and there he sits next to a man who he has violated before his arrest. The man attacks him. When the policeman came he notices that the two policemen are Dim and Billyboy. In the past Billyboy has been a leader of another gang which he has hated. They both beat him too. He manages to get to a house where the man is very helpful. Alex tells him the story about the Ludovicos technique and about the two policemen. The man has been the husband of the wife Alex and his friends have killed. The man takes him to a room where Alex hears loud music of Beethoven. The man has read about the treatment in the news so he knew how to hurt him. Alex cant stand the pain and jumps through the window. His suicide attempt is made public. After leaving the hospital he meets with the third member of his old gang, Pete who now has a family and is living a socially acceptable life. Now he realises that he is mature and something is missing in his life and so he decides to start a new life. 2, Personal Comment: When I began reading A Clockwork Orange I found it difficult and frustrating to read. The language which is used in the book is at first a bit annoying. It takes a while to figure it out but I found a Nadsat, English dictionary at the homepage of Clockwork orange so I could look the words up. I think it is very well written because Burgees writes like he is in the age of Alex, a teenager. The story is a little bit weird but in most cases it is realistic. Its a brilliant book about moral and violence but I think the ending is a bit out of place if you compare it to the rest of the book. I would highly recommend it to everyone who is interested in bad future prospects like Brave New

The mole people Essay Example

The mole people Paper In Jennifer Toths, The Mole People, the author ironically intends to dismiss the urban myth of animal-like underground dwellers by presenting her readership with the personal accounts of those who inhabit the tunnels beneath New York City. It is unfortunate that Toths lofty attempt to metaphorically resurrect the underground homeless bares more likeness to the 1956 movie monster series of the same name than to the perception of its ultimate purpose. Toths interpretation of life in the tunnels beneath New York City becomes the sensationalized voyage of a dichotomous nether world. By merely depicting the underground homeless as a dystopic or utopic subculture Toth proliferates the misrepresentations of homelessness, all the while inadvertently dehumanizing the mole people to be as visceral as their label suggests. In the 1956 Universal Studios release of The Mole People, intrepid archaeologists John Agar and Hugh Beaumont explore treacherous caverns only to discover an underground dwelling race of albinos who keep as their slaves the hunchbacked, clawed and bug-eyed Mole People. The films trailer contemplates whether or not these heroes can save themselves with only a flashlight for a weapon. (Rotten Tomatoes 1) The very nature of this seedy horror film is seemingly analogous to the way in which Toth, having strode beneath the heart of New York with only a can of Mace from her father, acts as our brave guide to the subterranean dystopia she has stumbled upon. The thrill of this adventure has obviously jaded Toths sense of objectivity, regardless of what her disclaimer (Authors Note) might offer as relevant proof against this arguement. We will write a custom essay sample on The mole people specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The mole people specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The mole people specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Simply by naming her book, The Mole People, Toth has chosen to sensationalize the perplexities of the underground homeless. Toth is unhesitant to portray the dystopia of a menacing subculture of irrational activity and unpredictable emotion. The Dark Angel chapter contains the most redundant display of Toths overt voyeurism, comparable only to the final few pages of the books epilogue in which Toth escapes from the horror of the mole people entirely. The devil-like figure that Toth devotes an entire chapter to could easily be miscued as an accurate representation of the underground homeless population. More importantly, if Toth were truly trying to alter the public perception of the mole people why would she include such an extraordinary spokesperson? Perhaps Satan is right when he describes Toth as having a fascination with the darkness of the tunnel and the evil within it. (Toth 165) This fascination leads Toth to go so far as to despotically define the smells of homelessness: spoiled and soured food from scavenged dumpsters, stale sweat, and the excrement and urine of the streets. (Toth 78) In conjunction with the terrifying adventures of her personal narrative, the quotes Toth selectively employ lend themselves to support her dystopic image of a carnal subculture. Rob Buckley, the director of the All Saints Soup Kitchen on New Yorks Upper West Side, affirms, Once you go down there and see the way they live, like animals, you can surely say no human beings live like that. (qtd. in Toth 91) Harold Deamues, a volunteer with ADAPT (The Association for Drug Abuse Prevention and Treatment) attests to feeling their eyes and starting to wonder about the stories of cannibalism. (qtd. in Toth 160) Luckily, on the next page Toth goes on to state that Daniel Crump, a steward for the Transit Workers and Mechanics Union, is one of the first knowledgeable people to talk about the underground homeless with her. (161) Perhaps, her audience can momentarily refrain from peeing its pants; that is until she incessantly reminds them of a third rail that pulses with electricity, or of the hidden criminals, drug addicts, enormous rats and rushing trains that occupy the tunnels. However, just when it is reasonable to believe that the mole people are villainous creatures, doomed to the lifelessness of their underground dystopia, Toth strategically twists the plot and allows her audience to empathize with them. Once more, Toths work is reminiscent of the Universal Studios 1956 monster series of the same name; the only difference being that their mole people partook in terrible dance scenes when they grew tired of enforcing their reign of terror upon society. For obvious reasons, portraying the tunnels as an alternative utopia to the topside world becomes just as harmful to Toths cause as it is to depict the tunnels as a dystopia. This book craves for a common ground. Toths glorification of what she calls the homeless version of the sweet life is equally disturbing in the sense that it has the ability to tempt its audience into wanting to join the ranks of the underground homeless. Needless to say, the enchantment and hyper-reality of Disneyland cannot lie within a subway tunnel. One is lead to believe that Toth would have her mole people singing and dancing in a well-orchestrated chorus line if she could. Toth goes on to fantasize about Ghost Cliff, a ten-thousand-year-old standing forest buried deep under the Upper West Side, and a room with a piano and tiled floor with mirrors all around that is even known to have a fountain as part of its di cor. (234) Toth paints a lucid picture of hidden societies that consist only of those who believe in the human spirit, as is the case with J. C. s community. (209) Example after example of these utopic places insists that some of the underground homeless are free from any kind of outside pressure. There is no fighting or struggling to be someone; everyone is part of a community established to abide by a basic human religion. The only war the mole people wage in is an independent fight against society and its institutions. (Toth 178). As unrealistic and harmful as it may be for Toth to display the mole people as a strictly dichotomous subculture, whats more detrimental to Toths, The Mole People, and more specifically the goal it has set for itself, is the way in which she persistently dehumanizes the homeless throughout her work. There are at least 41 instances in the book in which Toth metaphorically compares the underground homeless to some sort of animal. Within the first few pages of the introduction Toth identifies the homeless as wild and frightening untamed and dangerous. (2) Perhaps one of the most obvious examples (of the way in which Toth undermines the goal of her book) can be found in her first impression of Bernard. Toth describes Bernard as gliding towards her over the tracks only to crouch when he reaches her in preparation to lash out. Bernard goes on to circle Toth, prowling silently, leading Toth to believe she has found a mole person. (97-98) Are these the best words for an author to use who is hoping to dispose of the animalistic images that illustrate underground homelessness? When Toth suggests that Teresa was once a teddy bear, all round and always laughing but now she moves like a colt, an angular body with loose skin over sharp bones, it becomes obvious that the mole people are to be viewed as animals. (86) She goes on to depict Joey as being seen as a useless parasite of an old man. (113) Toth can feel the eyes of the mole people in tunnel and often distinguishes them by way of their faint growls and reverse hisses. Toth admits that the Dark Angel personifies her visceral fears of the underground and the creatures that exist there. (169) She encounters gangs of youth who roam the tunnels for helpless prey, laughs at alien-like figures that resemble E. T. and compares the entryway of J. C. s community to the entrance of a good-sized dog house. (193) Throughout The Mole People, Toth continually stresses the importance of possessing a primeval instinct for survival when beneath the tunnels in New York City. (239).

Definition of Developmental Psychology

Definition of Developmental Psychology Nowadays, the issue and main principles of developmental psychology become more and more popular and obtain greater significance. Great number of different theories connected with its main issues can serve as the best evidence of this statement.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Definition of Developmental Psychology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, to investigate this issue it is necessary to give clear definition of developmental psychology and its main peculiarities. Developmental psychology is a branch of science which researches and analyses the main peculiarities and stages of the development of a human being (Colman, 2009). However, there are many different points of view on the process of development and what main peculiarities it possesses. According to Cooker-Greuter (2004) human development consists of lateral and vertical development. Both these processes are very important, however, they have diff erent mechanisms. Lateral development happens through learning, schooling and gaining experience throughout all the life of a person (Cooker-Greuter, 2004). At the same time, vertical development is connected with a persons ability to see the world from another perspective. That is why, psychology should investigate both these processes, taking into account their peculiarities. Moreover, different variables such as worldviews, stages of development, level of consciousness, logical actions and organizing principles should also be taken into account as they show how a person can make his/her own decision about some issue or phenomenon and help to understand peculiarities of his/her development better (McCauley, Drath, Palus, O’Connor Baker, 2006). Application of developmental psychology in life Having understood main peculiarities of the functioning of developmental psychology, it is possible to understand how it can be applied in modern society under new conditions.Advertisin g Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More First of all, is should be said that understanding of the main processes of the development of human qualities and traits of character can give people a great number of possibilities for their improvement. Having realized the main aspects of the formation of a certain skill, it is possible to apply this knowledge in order to obtain the needed skills faster. That is why, developmental psychology can be widely used in such fields as education, training programs and some other spheres, oriented towards obtaining or developing certain skills. Moreover, under modern conditions of complex changing environment, it is viable to apply the knowledge in this field to the spheres of leadership and management. There is no use denying the fact that strong leaders are needed to guaranty further prosperous development of human society. With this in mind, one of the m ain purposes of developmental psychology is to analyze the main peculiarities of leaders development and guarantee their further personal growth. Their weak and strong sides can be investigated and altered with the help of developmental psychology. There is, of course, a great number of other possible applications of this science in our life. It can be widely used in order to predict human behavior, forecast developmental processes and understand the effects of family, living conditions and environment on the development of the individual person, both physically and emotionally (Nielsen, 2006). Such a great number of possibilities shows universal character of this issue. However, it can be easily explained by the fact that changes are the main driving force of the development of our society. That is why, it is possible to suggest that almost all processes could be analyzed using the main principles of developmental psychology.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample o n Definition of Developmental Psychology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The only problem is to create a good scientific rationale for application of this science in a certain sphere of our life. Benefits of developmental psychology It is obvious, that personal growth of a person depends on the ability to understand his/her current needs and problems and decide what changes are needed in order to satisfy demands which exist on the certain stage of his/her development. It is obvious that clear understanding of the main peculiarities of the stages of personal development can make the process of obtaining new skills and adapting to new conditions much more easier. It is possible to suggest, that developmental psychology can be very useful within the framework of the personal growth of a person. There are some obvious advantages of using it with the main aim to improve some quality or a process. The thing is that it is possible to create a cert ain strategy of the personal development which will take into account peculiarities of every person. Being unique, this program will be very efficient and beneficial. However, developmental psychology can be applied not only within the framework of personal development. It is obvious, that its benefits can also be seen at the domestic level. First of all, improvement of some skills of the citizens of a state will obviously result in general improvement of situation. Every state depends on its people and that is why personal growth of the majority of citizens will be very beneficial for the incomes of a country and its growth in all other spheres. Moreover, personal and leadership skills of the officials of a country can also be investigated and the plan for their development can be created. This action will lead to a great improvement of the state of a country. That is why, developmental psychology can be a very efficient remedy which can help people to unlock their potential and be come prosperous.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More References Colman, A. M. (2009). A dictionary of psychology (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cooker-Greuter, S.R. (2004). Making the case for a developmental perspective. Industrial and Commercial Training, 36(7), 270-280. McCauley, C.D., Drath, W.H., Palus, C.J., O’Connor, P.M.G. Baker, B.A. (2006). The use of constructive developmental theory to advance the understanding of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), 629-640. Nielsen, M. (2006). Copying actions and copying outcomes: Social learning through the second year. Developmental Psychology, 42(3), 555-565

Bits and Bytes

Bits and Bytes Bits and Bytes Bits and Bytes By Simon Kewin In its election manifesto, one of the major political parties in the UK recently promised to provide virtually every household in the country a broadband service of at least 2 megabytes per second by 2012. The â€Å"2 megabytes per second† was actually a mistake. A speed of two megabytes per second is the same way as saying 16 megabits per second, a speed which is technically feasible, but unlikely to be universally available in the UK any time soon. The sentence was altered in later versions of the manifesto to the much more realistic â€Å"2 megabits per second†. The typo, however, highlights how easy it is to make mistakes using technical language where words often have very specific meanings. If you’re using terminology from medicine, computers, statistics etc., it pays to check that you have each term correct. In this case, the original authors confused the words bit and byte. Both are units of computer memory/storage. A bit is the smallest amount of storage, a 0 or a 1, the word formed from a blend of â€Å"binary† and â€Å"digit†. A byte, on the other hand, is a collection of bits – almost always eight of them. So, a kilobyte is eight times larger than a kilobit. While computer memory is generally expressed as a number of bytes (kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes etc.), network speeds are generally expressed as a number of bits per second (kilobits, megabits, gigabits etc.) The terms are very easy to confuse especially when they are abbreviated to just â€Å"meg†, â€Å"gig† etc. as both sets sometimes are. But, a broadband speed of â€Å"2 meg† would always mean â€Å"2 megabits per second† and never â€Å"2 megabytes per second†. Abbreviations are often used for these terms, and the same care needs to be taken. For example, the abbreviation for megabyte is MB whereas the abbreviation for megabit is Mb. The case of the â€Å"b† makes all the difference. The same is true for kilobytes/kilobits (KB/Kb), gigabytes/gigabits (GB/Gb) and so forth. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Words for Facial ExpressionsSelect vs. SelectedThe Difference Between "Shade" and "Shadow"

Analytical brief Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analytical brief - Essay Example Earth & Space Science professor and Quaternary Research Center director Eric Steig states that this is a fact and there is no theoretical basis that this is a natural cycle (p.5). Although there are different findings on this issue, a new study on these upswings associates with the rise of the temperature of the ocean surface. Scientists are still not in consensus on the possible cause of this issue. Heat waves will be more frequent and more intense as temperatures rise (Gore et al., An Inconvenient Truth). He presents a record of the temperature increase in correlation to the heat waves the globe experienced in the history. The data gathered prove that as the average increases, the extreme goes up as well. Global sea levels could rise by more than 20 feet (6 meters) with the loss of shelf ice in Greenland and Antarctica, devastating coastal areas worldwide (Gore et al., An Inconvenient Truth). Gore argues that the melting of Greenland and Antarctica, due to rise on CO2 level cause e xtreme flooding by 2050. Although scientists believe that if Greenland and glaciers in the Antarctic melt, this will cause an increase in the sea level which will cause the low-lying areas to submerge into water. But they have different estimates on when this would happen. Some say that if the temperature rises to 3C, which is 5.4F within the next 100 years, there is a big possibility that Gore’s claim may happen (Nielsen-Gammon 22). With all the claims mentioned and data presented, how does Gore intend to combat our devastating predicament? His main point is to lower energy consumption to decrease the greenhouse gas effect by the use of Electranet. This will replace our fuel-consuming engines found in cars, factory machines and the likes. Coming from an environmental activist point of view, this will definitely help reduce our greenhouse gases that are the main cause of global warming. However, apart from some inaccuracies in his claims, Gore also fails to

American Intellectual Union Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

American Intellectual Union - Research Paper Example The employees are divided in terms of their position i.e. either they are hourly employees or salaried employees. The employees were also categorized for the tenure which they had spent with the company. This was categorized as the number of employees who had worked for a period less than 2 years, those who had worked from 2 to 5 years and those who had worked for more than 5 years with the company. The overall job satisfaction of the employees while they were on the job, their intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction values and the benefits which they derived was rated as a measure of the survey. Statistics plays a vital role and has significant value in assessing the success of an organization. Statistics possesses a central position in predicting the stability of a business and its overall application in the industry is very wide. It helps in assessing the current performance of the organization. It also assists in designing the future plans which can support organizational growth . Properly using surveys can help in making quick and successful business decisions. Several production decisions which are adopted are based on these calculations. Using statistics can aid in assessing and analyzing the change within the organization. Gender Male 95 Female 95 The survey that has been conducted comprises an even distribution of male and female respondents. Out of 190 respondents 95 are male, and 95 are female. This shows that 50% of the respondents belong to the male population, and 50% belong to the female population. Tenure With Company Less than 2 years 91 2 to 5 years 35 Over 5 Years 64 The tenure of employees with the company has been shown in the chart above. Out of 190 respondents 91 respondents which amount to 48% had worked with the company for less than 2 years. 35 of the respondents which are equal to 18% had worked with the company for 2 to 5 years. 64 respondents which amount to 34% were those who had worked with the company for over 5 years. Tenure Wit h Company Overall Male Female Less than 2 years 91 50 41 2 to 5 years 35 14 21 Over 5 Years 64 31 33 The tenure of the employees distributed according to gender has been shown in the chart above. The distribution shows the number of male and female respondents and the tenure which they have spent with the company. Department Human Resources 52 Information Technology 71 Administration 67 27% of the survey participants belong to the Human resource department, 38% belong to the IT department, and 35% belong to administration department. The mean calculated for the extrinsic value has been shown below Mean For Extrinsic Value By Gender Overall Mean (190 Respondents) 5.042 Male (95 Respondents) 5.276 Female (95 Respondents) 4.807 Probability That an Individual Will Be Between 16–21 Years of Age The probability that the individual selected will between 16-21 years of age is 36.84%. This amount can be calculated as there are 70 respondents in this category and 190 total respondents to the survey. Probability That an Individual’s Overall Job Satisfaction Is 5.2 or Lower The probability that an individual’s overall job satisfaction is 5.2 or lower is 86.32%. This has been calculated on the basis that 164 of the total respondents are those whose job satisfaction is 5.2 or lower.  

Learning Expirience Essay Example for Free

Learning Expirience Essay Experience can shape our behavior and personality. More over our experiences contribute to our development over time. Learning process occurs when we experience situation that have negative or positive effect on us. In this essay I will briefly describe my personal learning experience; I will also define the concept of learning, and will provide analysis of what I have learned from this experience. In addition my essay will include the analysis and application of classical and operant conditioning as well as cognitive- social learning. My Experience Every person’s identity is formed by the various roles that they perform in the world. In fact becoming a mother is one more such role and it has psychological implications. Four month ago I became a mother to a wonderful, my first baby boy. The experience of giving birth, as well as being home with a newborn for the first few weeks was overwhelming, painful, and emotionally tiring. I am 25 years old and was so exciting to becoming a mother, however when my son was born for the first few weeks I have experienced anxiety, stress, depression, fear and even anger. It has been almost 4 month and my baby is my life, I cannot imagine how I was getting frustrated and feeling all those things when my baby is my joy. Today I am still tired, and stressed, however anger and depression is gone. I have learned from this experience that I need to accept the change in my life, and avoid becoming frustrated. Being prepared for things to be different could have prepared me to deal with situation differently. Also positive attitude should have been my best ally instead of being afraid and having negative thoughts. At last I have learned from this experience that I need to try to develop a new and balanced lifestyle that takes into consideration all areas of my new life. Learning Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience (David A. Kolb, 1984). As we learn, we alter the way we perceive our environment, the way we interpret the incoming stimuli, and therefore the way we interact, or behave (Carpenter Huffman, 2012). Learning through Classical Conditioning One of the best-known characteristics of behavioral learning theory is classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus (Carpenter Huffman, 2012). There are basic principles of classical conditioning process. Such as the unconditioned stimulus (UC) and unconditioned response (UR), as well as conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR) (Carpenter Huffman, 2012). The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response (â€Å"The propositional nature of human associative learning,† 2009). For example, baby crying made me feel sad and frustrated, and baby smiling made me feel loved, happy and positive. For instance, when I saw my bay for the first time the feeling of pain was simply gone. As I spend those first weeks with my baby although I have had mood swings and feeling of anger sometimes, however every time I looked at my baby I naturally felt better and calmer. The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. For example, feel of love in response to my baby smile is unconditioned stimulus. The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response (â€Å"The propositional nature of human associative learning,† 2009). For example, when my baby cried I felt frustration and in the same time my husband was trying to explain me something thus my husband voice would be conditioned stimulus. Although the sound of my husband voice is unrelated to my baby’s cry and feeling of frustration, if the sound of his voice was paired multiple times with the baby’s cry, the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. For instance, feeling frustrated when I heard my husband talking to me. In my view classical conditioning is a useful technique that can be applied by creating a positive environment to help people to overcome anxiety, fear and frustration. For example, a situation like my baby’s crying with pleasant surroundings would have helped me to learn new associations. Instead of feeling anxious, frustrated and angry in that situation, I learn to stay relax and calm (Carpenter Huffman, 2012). Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is a technique of learning that happens through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior (â€Å"The propositional nature of human associative learning,† 2009). The elimination of an undesirable outcome can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behavior. Feeling frustrated, being angry with situation simply led to more stress and created more problems for myself emotionally and physically. Positive reinforcement: Getting to know my baby, his first smile and lough created a positive and happy environment thus increasing my positive behavior. To conclude learning process revolves around human life. People learn something new every single day, thus creating new experiences and knowledge. Self-development and growth naturally occurs through learning.

Statistics Project :: Papers

My task during this statistics coursework is to gather relevant information regarding the memories of people with regard to many different factors. I shall need to create numerous hypotheses that are sensible and are practical to carry out, get information relevant to the hypotheses and present the data in different methods which are relevant to the experiment. Hypothesis My primary hypothesis is that pictures are easier to memorise than words, and words are easier to memorise rather than numbers. I have come to this prediction as I personally find pictures easier to remember because you can relate it to something and it is visual, visual objects are said to be easier to memorise. Secondly words are easier to memorise than numbers because words can be easily related to ones thinking and therefore people can remember them easily while numbers are harder to relate. However all this is based on what technique an individual uses to memorise things. My secondary hypothesis is that females have better memories than men, I have decided to test this as this is what most women stereotype, especially after they are married the husband I always the one forgetting everyone while the wife remembers every single detail even the tiniest thing such as their anniversary. My third Hypothesis is that memory declines as a person becomes older, I have based this theory on that the younger members of the family remember my birthday but the older ones as they get older begin to forget, and because they forget when you remind them you get double the present. So I am testing this theory to see if my free wealth is going to increase as I get older or decrease. How will I test my hypothesis? I will test my hypothesis in this question firstly by using the secondary evidence which will be provided to me via my mediocre school. This is a survey testing both males and females in years 7, 10, and 12. They will be tested on their memory of pictures, words and

Evidence-Based Practice & Applied Nursing Research Essay

Type of Sources / Appropriateness of Sources / Classification of Sources American Academy of Pediatrics and American Academy of Family Physicians article regarding acute otitis media is a filtered resource. It is an appropriate source for nursing practice because; it establishes clinical guidelines to diagnose and manage AOM. It also establishes guidelines when to treat the signs and symptoms of AOM, watchful waiting, or to treat with an antibiotic. This article is classified as an evidence based guideline because, it reviews multiple research literatures in a systemic manner and provides recommendations of practice. Block’s Causative Pathogens article is an unfiltered resource. It is an appropriate source for nursing practice because it provides the clinician with the most recent and up to date research on the topic. The article is primary research evidence because; its researchers acquired the data first hand. Kelly’s article regarding Current pediatric diagnosis and treatment is a general information resource. This article is not appropriate for clinician use because it only provides basic general background. It does not guide the clinician in diagnosing and treatment. McCracken’s article in the Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal is an unfiltered resource. It is an appropriate for nursing practice because it supports established guidelines and shows what will happen with continued antibiotic use. This is an evidence summary article because it lists all of the important information and the evidence supporting it. The last source of evidence is interviews with parents. This type of source is considered a general information resource. It is appropriate because, the interviews give firsthand experience of onset and signs and symptoms of AOM. This source of classifications is none of the listed. â€Å"Acute otitis media (AOM) is the most common infection for which antibacterial agents are prescribed for children in the United States. As such, the diagnosis and management of AOM has a significant impact on the health of children, cost of providing care, and overall use of antibacterial agents (AAFP, 2004).  Watchful waiting can have many benefits for the children and the provider if used properly. Diagnosing AOM can be tricky. The signs and symptoms can also be related to other illnesses such as an upper respiratory virus. Throwing antibiotics at any illness use to be the course of action. However, now that there is evidence that bacteria have become resistant to some antibiotics, clinicians are testing out other means of treating illnesses. If the child presenting with symptoms of AOM has no underlying conditions and has means to follow up with the doctor if the symptoms progress, watchful waiting is an appropriate app roach for treating the child. According to the research, placebo controlled trials have shown that children have responded well without antibacterial intervention. Giving the opportunity for the illness to resolve without antibacterial intervention not only benefits the child but, the caregivers and the clinician. It benefits the child by not being exposed to antibiotics that are not needed, therefore creating a potential resistance to that antibiotic. It benefits the caregiver by not spending money on a medication their child does not need. Last, it benefits the clinician by preventing resistance to an antibiotic that may be useful in the near future. Watchful waiting is only appropriate if the patient meets the guidelines of uncomplicated AOM, assurance of a follow up if necessary, and access to antibiotics if symptoms progress or worsen. The findings in the AAFP article can be applied in many ways to improve nursing practice in a healthcare setting. The article provides evidence based guidelines on how to properly diagnose AOM and the typical signs and symptoms. It establishes the three criteria the patient must exhibit for a certain diagnosis of AOM. If the patient does not meet the certain criteria, it guides the clinician to continue to assess the patient for another illness, such as an upper respiratory virus. Proper diagnosis will improve clinician treatment and care of the patient. The article also includes a descriptive chart on how to assess and manage pain associated with AOM. It lists for the clinician the recommended medications, remedies, and agents for the clinician to utilize to manage pain. It also lists the effectiveness and the side effects. This will help improve nursing care by implementing the proper medication and or remedies to the patient with the highest effectiveness and the least amount of side effects. The article also very clearly identifies when watchful waiting is  not appropriate and what antibiotics should be prescribed and the usual dosage. This information is helpful to nursing practice by helping the clinician distinguish what patient is suitable for watchful waiting or antibiotic therapy. Another way the article improves nursing practice is, that the article provides information on how to prevent AOM and reoccurrence. This information can be used to help educate patient’s caregivers on ways to prevent AOM and reoccurrence. Ethical issues always arise when it comes to healthcare, especially when it comes to children. When conducting an evidence based research, there is a high likelihood of exposing the child to potential danger, illness, and adverse reactions. The first ethical issue is; is it even right to subject a child to research if there is a high likelihood of helping other children. That is something for the children’s parents to decide. However, it is the responsibility of the researchers to fully explain the process, potential side effects, potential danger, and any other concerns to the parents. It also the responsibility of researchers to determine if the parents have the capability to comprehend the information and the risk of the research. Not doing so would be unethical and could tarnish the results of the research. Another major ethical dilemma that comes with involving children in research is that the children do not have the capability of making that decision themselves. Research should be a voluntary thing and not left up to someone else to decide. However, when it comes to children that is not an option. The ethical problem is should the child be subjected to potential harm because of the parents’ willingness to allow it. The needs to be guidelines established prior to the start of the research that regulate the risks that the child might be subjected to. The risk should be very minimal with a very high benefit. Involving children in any type of evidence based research can be very tricky and has the potential of bringing up multiple ethical issues. It is the researcher’s responsibility to ensure the child is protected, not exposed to unneeded harm, and the caregivers are knowledgeable of the risk factors and are competent enough to make an informed decision. Besides ethical issues, there are other issues that need to be taken into consideration when research involves children. Vulnerable populations, such as low income families, families with different cultural backgrounds, and families with insufficient education can be at risk when it  comes to research involving children. For an example, low income families may not have the opportunity to participate in evidence based research because they might not fit certain criteria. In the AAFP research, in order for the child to be a candidate of the watchful waiting, they had to have means of a follow up appointment. For low income families, coming to the doctor multiple time may not be option. Financially they may not be able to afford, parents may not be able to get time off from work, or have means of transportation for a follow up appointment. These circumstances may subject the child to unneeded antibiotic treatment simply because the patient is unable to follow up with the doctor. Also, families with a cultural difference may not fully understand the benefits or risks of allowing their child to participate in this research. Without informed consent, the results of the research are tarnished and run the risk of jeopardizing the study. Informed consent when it comes to research involving children is extremely important for validity of a project and prevents any ethical problems. Any research involving children can be extremely tricky and should be held to the highest ethical standards and involve minimal risk to children. References American Academy of Pediatrics and American Academy of Family Physicians. (2004.) Clinical practice guideline: Diagnosis and management of acute otitis media. Retrieved from http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;113/5/1451 Block, S. L. (1997). Causative pathogens, antibiotic resistance and therapeutic considerations in acute otitis media. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 16, 449–456. Kelley, P. E., Friedman, N., Johnson, C. (2007). Ear, nose, and throat. In W. W. Hay, M. J. Levin, J. M. Sondheimer, & R. R. Deterding (Eds.), Current pediatric diagnosis and treatment (18th ed., pp. 459–492). New York: Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill. McCracken, G. H. (1998). Treatment of acute otitis media in an era of increasing microbial resistance. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 17, 576–579.

The Development of the Modern Travel and Tourism Industry

The development of the travel and tourism industry in the uk increased after the end of world war 2. Before World War 2 there was not much of a travel industry except when Billy Butlin opened his first holiday camp in Skegness. During the war no one would go abroad or visit other places apart from the richer people as they were the ones who could afford it. The travel and tourism industry has developed as a direct result of technological developments. These technological developments have been in transport technology such as things like, jet aircraft; improve trains and more luxurious coaches. Also, there has been an improvement in information and communication technology such as the internet, computer reservation systems (CRS) and global distribution systems (GDS) as well as credit and debit cards allowing customers to pay for their travels in more convenient ways. You can read also Waves The most significant development in air travel was when the jet aircraft was introduced in the 1950's especially the Boeing 707 in 1958. Air travel became more rapid, safe, comfortable and relative to past decades- cheap. The travel and tourism industry benefitted from the ‘jumbo jet' boeing 747 that was introduced in 1969. With the jet it was possible to fly in less time making long haul flights more accessible, also the price to pay was reduced due to the increased capacity of the jumbo jet (400 seats). However, it is not just the air transport that has been revolutionised by technological developments. The channel tunnel was opened in 1995 and increased competition for the cross-channel ferry service. The changing in socio-economic factors has added to the development of the modern travel and tourism industry. These factors include: * Changes in car ownership * Increasing leisure time * An increase in disposable income * The impact of the national economy In the last 50 years, car ownership has increased dramatically. This is because peoples income has raised and the cost of cars are more affordable to buy and to run. In 1970 there were approximately 11 million cars on uk roads this is a huge increase compared with the 2.3 million in 1950. Statistics from the Department for Transport show that in 2002 there were over 25.5 million private cars in the UK. This suggests that car owners have an additional travel option, and that it is easier for them to reach destinations that are inaccessible or difficult to access with public transport. A benefit of having your own car is that car owners can chose when to travel without a timetable restriction and they have a choice of their speed of travel. Car ownerships offer flexibility to travel. The rise is car ownership has resulted in the demand for public transport to drop, such as trains, coaches for holiday travel. The result of this leads to cuts in transport services. Another effect on the increase of car ownership in the uk has been the increase in associated environmental problems, such as pollution, congestion and the loss of land to road building programmes. Over the years, the increase in leisure time has come about because of holiday pay entitlement. In the UK there are a number of one day bank holidays as well as annual leave. Holiday entitlement is partly responsible for the seasonality of travel and tourism as working parents take holidays in the school holidays to coincide with school holidays. The â€Å"working week† has also been made shorter to an average of 37 hours, compared to the 1950's when the working week was 50 hours a week. A great benefit to the travel and tourism industry is that many employers offer flexible working hours allowing employees to have long weekends and hence take short breaks. Labour saving household equipment such as dishwashers, washing machines, and microwaves mean that household chores are carried out quicker, increasing leisure time. People on average are also living longer and retiring earlier. The ‘grey' market is important in travel and tourism, as retired people frequently have a l ot of leisure time and money to spend on holidays and other leisure activities. In travel and tourism the increase in product development is primarily due to package holidays. The origin on the package holiday has come from a man called Thomas Cook, who took his passengers by train Loughborough to Leicester in 1841. The modern package or also known as the inclusive tour was created by Vladimir Raitz, who in 1950 carried a party of thirty two holiday makers to Corsica. That particular package included return flights, transfers, tented accommodation and full board (fully catered). By filling every seat he managed to keep the price low. He then went on to establish Horizon Holidays and chartered planes to destination such as Palma, Malaga and other Mediterranean resorts, carrying 300 passengers in the first year of operating. Package holidays have since increased with Thomson, Airtours and First Choice being the biggest outgoing tour operators in terms of the number of package holidays sold. The most favoured destination is the Mediterranean as this is the most popular with the British. However long-haul destinations including places like the Caribbean, the USA, the far east and Australia are growing to be increasing important holiday destinations as travel costs fall. In the 1950's Club Med introduced all inclusive holidays. All inclusive's can now include all meals, drinks, sports and entertainment, for example, but what's covered in the packaged does vary depending on the operator. For example an all-inclusive package with First choice at the four start Occidental Grand Fuerteventura in Jandia included the following: * Food- buffets for breakfast, lunch and dinner; unlimited snacks 10 a.m to midnight; afternoon tea and cakes; picnics available on request; unlimited ice cream between 3pm and 6 pm * Drink- unlimited locally produced alcoholic drinks between 10.30 am and midnigh5t for adults; unlimited soft drinks, tea, coffee and mineral water between 10 a.m and midnight. Holiday camps are purpose sites providing family accommodation and a diversity of entertainment facilities on site for a relatively low all inclusive price. They were first originated by Billy Butlin in the 1930s who opened his first holiday camp at Skegness on the Lincolnshire coast in 1936. Holiday camps worked on the principle and motive that if children were happy on holiday, then parents would be too. In this type of holiday Butlin's, Pontin's and Warner's became market leaders. In the recent years they have modified these camps to meet changing consumer needs and expectations. New types of holiday centres have evolved such as Centre Parcs. Because of the huge growth in travel and tourism there has been a change in consumer needs and expectations. There have been significant changed due to cultural and social factors. We also now demand higher standards of quality and customer service. The simple sun sea and sand holidays in the 1960's seem less popular with people nowadays, and more flexibility is demanded. These days, customers prefer to choose the type of accommodation, the board basis, and the type of transport and the length of the holiday. Package holidays now offer this choice. Special-interest holidays have particularly been developed more to cater for a range of interests. Holidays that have become increasingly important are activity and adventure holidays, especially the ones that include activities such as white-water rafting or scuba diving. The ‘second holiday' has developed as leisure time increases and disposable income rise. Skiing became popular as a second (winter) holiday from the 1970s, and in the 1980s the short break market developed. The domestic travel and tourism industry has benefitted from this. Overseas city breaks are now very popular thanks to low-price air fares and other quick transport methods. We see the damage that can be done to popular holiday destinations and the travelling public is becoming more environmentally aware. Tour operators have responded to this and many brochures will make a statement about what they're doing to support local communities. The Travel Foundation is a charity that develops practical solutions to help protect and improve holiday destinations. External factors in the travel and tourism industry include legislation. The Holidays with Pact Act 1938 encouraged voluntary agreements by employers on paid holidays and generated the idea of a two week paid holiday for all workers. Although this ambition was not fulfilled untilled a few years after the end of the second world war, by 1939 some 11 million of the UK's 19 million workforce were entitled to paid holidays, a key factor in generating mass travel and tourism. Countryside and Rights of Way act 2000 made it legal for the public to enter area's and land that were previously restricted to the landowners. The right does not include cycling, horse riding, driving a vehicle or camping, and there are various other rules to protect the land and the interests of the landowners, such as farmers. Development of Tourism Act 1968 established the British tourist authority which was set up to encourage incoming tourism from overseas visitors, as well as the four national tourist boards (NTB) of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland which oversee tourism in their own areas. The BTA and the NTBs were given the power and authority to act in name of the government and to promote British Tourism. Since 2004 the BTA and the English tourism council have merged together into VisitBritain. Each NTB work within its own country to encourage and improve amenities for travel and tourism. They offer a service for information, undertake research and provide grants for tourism-related projects. In order to extend their influence within their countries, each NTB sets up Regional Tourist Boards. EU Directive on Package Travel 1995 ensures that customers of package holiday providers have financial protection. For example, if a company fails, customers that have not yet travelled can re-claim their money back. For those who are on holiday at the time do not have to pay additional costs. The directive made a number of duties on the organisers of package holidays, which includes providing clear contract terms, giving emergency telephone numbers, providing a range of compensation options if the agreed services are not supplied, producing accurate promotional materials such as brochures, as well as providing proof that the organiser has security against insolvency. Disability discrimination Act 1995 came about through public pressure to persuade people and businesses to remove any barriers facing people with disabilities. Travel and tourism organisations such as visitor attractions have to be accessible to those with restricted mobility or those in wheelchairs. Also public transport services have been advised to their vehicles with facilities to make it easier to use for people with disabilities, for example fitting low steps on busses. These adaptations have been successful as there are 10 million disabled people in the UK with a spending power of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½48 million. This act requires travel agents to make reasonable adjustments to their shops to ensure that disabled people can have access to their facilities and services. If these adjustments are not made the travel agency can be sued and required to pay compensation. Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 applies to workers in all areas of travel and tourism. * Employers have general duty to provide for the health, safety and welfare of those they employ. Employers are also required to consult employees about health and safety arrangements and prepare written health and safety policy statement. * Employers need to ensure that their operations do not put non-employees at risk. * Adequate information about any work-related hazards and the precautions needed to contain them must be made available. * All employees have to take reasonable care to ensure their own health and safety at work and that of other people who might be affected by their actions. Each year The World Tourism Organisation produces a report on the long term prospects for tourism. The WTO predicts that worldwide international arrivals are expected to reach over 1.56 billion by the year 2020. 1.18 billion of that number will be between region and 337 million will be long haul travel. It is predicted that by 2020 the top 3 tourist receiving regions will be Europe (717 million tourists), East Asia and the pacific (379 million) and the Americas (282 million), followed by Africa, the Middle East and South Asia. However, it is impossible to make precise predictions in travel and tourism. The following examples may or may not happen. A development that is likely to take place over the next few years is space tourism; other developments in transport technology included the Airbus's 8380 ‘superjumbo' with 555 seats compared to the regular boeing 747 jumbo's with 415 seats. The Chinese and Russian markets, with a population of 1.3 billion, are likely to attract many new tourists. VisitBritain is expecting a double in the number of tourists from China to the UK in the next 5 years to 130 000, and the number of visitors from Russia to increase by 50% in the same period to more than 200 000. These upcoming markets are targeted by travel companies. Russians see the UK as a desirable destination. Chinese consumers are cost and quality conscious and are less likely to buy on-line as they do not have credit cards. According to the WTO, china itself is expected to become the worlds leading tourism destination by 2020, with some 100 million outbound tourists and 130 million each year. The conclude the development of the modern travel and tourism industry is primarily due to the changing socio-economic factors, technical developments, product development, external factors, the change in customer needs and expectations and the up-growing future trends in travel and tourism.

A foreword of a book on mass media laws and regulations The WritePass Journal

A foreword of a book on mass media laws and regulations Chapter 1 A foreword of a book on mass media laws and regulations Chapter 1INTRODUCTION:WHAT IS ELECTRONIC MEDIA?BACKGROUND OF ELECTRONIC MEDIA IN PAKISTAN AND UK:ABSTRACT:AIMS AND OBJECTIVESRESEARCH OVERVIEW:CHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEW:ORGANIZATIONAL THEORIES:THE CLASSICAL APPROACH:THE HUMAN RELATION APPROACH:CONTINGENCY THEORY:ROLE OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENTINTERNAL TRAINING:EXTERNAL TRAINING:THEORITICAL CONCEPT OF TRAINING:CHAPTER 3RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.PRIMARY RESEARCH:SECONDARY RESEARCH:QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:CHAPTER 4DATA ANALYSIS:COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS:TIME LINE FOR DISSERTATION:CHAPTER 5CONCLUSION:Related Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION: Syed Sajjad Ali Shah, Former Chief Justice of Pakistan said in a foreword of a book on Mass Media Laws and Regulations in Pakistan that: All over the world, the citizens right to acquire knowledge and information is increasingly being proclaimed and recognized as a fundamental right. The international human rights instruments as well as national constitutions and laws, acknowledge and safeguard this right† WHAT IS ELECTRONIC MEDIA? Any channel of communication which serves different functions such as a wide range of entertainment or mass appeal and communicating news and information and advertisement messages through electronic medium is called Electronic media. The duty of media is to communicate massages from advertiser or vendors and serves it as a product or services to the consumer. Types of media include print, electronic, outdoor and direct mail. Print media refers to magazine and news paper where as electronic media are usually referred as broadcast media that are radio and television including cable. BACKGROUND OF ELECTRONIC MEDIA IN PAKISTAN AND UK: In 1964 Television was first introduced in Pakistan. The only channel at that time was Pakistan Television (PTV) that lasts just for few hours everyday from evening till midnight to the viewers. The Channel introduced as a corporation of the state, where the government of Pakistan appointed its board of directors. The managing director was also appointed by the Government of Pakistan but with the approval of the boards. The Early channel includes STN, which was awarded by monopolistic contract with a private company called Network Television Market (NTM). In 1990 PTV was stroked by the financial mismanagement that causes a vast amount of debt and because of Hindi channels the rapidly reducing popularity among the viewers also reduced their advertising revenue. Pakistan Electronic Media is now regulated by Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA). It was established under PEMRA ordinance of 2002. The same month after establishment PEMRA issued 29 Radio licences for new private radio stations. The duty of this authority is to regulate and facilitate the private electronic media, and to improve the standards of information, education and entertainment and to expand the choice for the people of Pakistan including current affairs, news, religious knowledge, arts and culture and as well as science and technology. Where as in 1932 right before 32 years when television was first launched in Pakistan, BBC launched the first television channel in UK called â€Å"THE BBC TELEVISION SERVICE.†Ã‚   The BBC was sponsored by the public money build up from a TV licence fee collected from all UK households who had a television set. This fee was mandatory for all; failure to pay the fee was punishable by prosecution causing a fine or imprisonment. Until ITV was launched in 1955 BBC television service had a complete monopoly in UK. ABSTRACT: Training and development come under the umbrella of human resource management. This research will help analyse the current frameworks by human resource executives to improve training and development within Pakistan media industry and as well as look at the barriers facing by human resource department over the coming year and techniques for overcoming them. This research is a comparative study of training and development strategies in UK and Pakistan media Industry. With the purpose to look into the topic, I will compare and relate the techniques of UK media Industry with Pakistan media industry as how UK media industry deals with such kind of situations. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES Training and development refers to pass on or to enhance the specific knowledge and skills of an employee. Training and development is essential to advance the current and future performance of the employee by boosting the ability of an employee to perform better through learning and training. Training usually offers to the operatives on the other hand development programmes are for the employees on upper level or positions. The Primary aim of training and development is to help the organisation reach its goal by increasing value to its key resources that is the employee of the organization. By training the employee we can enable them to perform well and to empower them to make the best use of their natural abilities. The Basic aims of training and development are: It develops the ability of the employee and advances their performance. It helps to meet the organization with the future needs of human resource by help the staff to grow within the organization. And it also reduces the learning time for the employees and make sure that they become completely proficient as quickly and economically as possible. It has been seen that most of the researchers mainly focused their investigation on the role and responsibilities, role conflict and role ambiguity and some extent on the training and development programme, but this piece of research reflects the study of how training advance the level of understanding of the employee to their job and also how it helps in their career development. The main objective of the research is to look in to the developments in this important field of human resources particularly in electronic media industry in United Kingdom and Pakistan. Further to this we also look in to the organisations working without training and development department in some organisations. RESEARCH OVERVIEW: The goal of my research is to find out that how training and development can help improve the knowledge and skills of the employee within the organization especially in Pakistan electronic media by comparing it with the UK electronic industry mainly focus on the broadcasting media. The first chapter of my research will help to introduce the analysis of the study and also why it is useful to investigate further into this topic. The aim and objectives of the research study are also included in this chapter. Chapter two highlight the critical review of literature. The literature review will be divided into two major parts (1) Organizational theories (2) Training and Development. Chapter Three will cover up the research methodologies used for the research area. Chapter four will examine the data collection and analyse the types of information of the collected data. The Fifth Chapter will conclude the research and will suggest some advice and emphasize the limitations of the study. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW: A critical and in depth evaluation of a previous research is called Literature Review. It examines a wide range of literature concerned with the employee motivation which has major importance for organizational matters such as Training and development. The themes provided the framework based on: 1. Organisational theory which relates to employee in an organization 2. To designed the development strategies to reward and distinguish the employee input in television channels. We will look in this research how these set of organisational theories and approaches relate to understand the topic of research. ORGANIZATIONAL THEORIES: Dugan the famous Author said in 1985 that â€Å"training and development is alive and well and growing. In fact, it has grown to be a part of a much larger arena.† There are so many approaches to training and development by so many authors my research will mainly focus on the Classical Approach, The human relation approach, and the contingency theory. I will give a brief introduction of all of these theories in my research. THE CLASSICAL APPROACH: The Standard model to the organizational plan and management in the classical approach were based on the assumed basic numbers, which are written below. To be operated and structured there is at least one best approach for all the organizations. Classical approach was based on the legal managerial power and rule of law. We know financial reward is the best way to motivate employee to work and we will also examine what are other ways of motivating employee and get their maximum use. THE HUMAN RELATION APPROACH: The Third step in the development of modern management was the advancement in the attention to the human factors which has become known as the â€Å"Human Relation School of management.† It was introduced in 1930s as a response to the negative view of human nature suggested by the classical approach and against the mechanistic view of organization. Human Relation approach talks about the emotional behaviour of the people that people are more emotional rather than economical rational beings, where as organizations are cooperative social systems rather than mechanical ones; and also that organizations are composed of informal structure, and rules as well as formal procedures and practices. CONTINGENCY THEORY: This theory was first come in to view in the 1960s as a rejection of the â€Å"One best way† approach. There are many types of the contingency theory. It is a set of behavioural theory that argues that there is no one best way of organising or leading and the leadership approach to one situation is not necessarily suitable to others. The Four most important suggestions of Contingency theory are:    There is no one best way to manage the organization.   Ã‚   The plan and aim of the organization should be according to the environment.   Ã‚   Effective organizations not only plan according to the environment but also fit between its subsystems.   Ã‚   The organization should be properly designed and the management style should be suitable both to the tasks and the nature of the work group if the organization wants to satisfy its needs and requirements. ROLE OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT According to Casse and Banahan (2007), â€Å"the different approaches to training and development need to be explored.† Training in an organization is mainly consisting of two parts: 1- Internal Training 2- External Training INTERNAL TRAINING: Internal training means a training session organised within the house by human resource department or giving training to a particular department by a senior staff or talented employee as a resource person. EXTERNAL TRAINING: The training which is arranged outside the organization by training institutes and consultants are called external training. Both the trainings are very essential as it helps preparing staff for greater challenges. THEORITICAL CONCEPT OF TRAINING: When the planning of a learning programme become a major concern, the theoretical concept of training becomes more significant. It helps determining the area where there is a space for further improvement and the training is required to achieve the goal. For any organization it is important to design the objectives and framework of training to achieve its corporate goal. There are countless theoretical concepts I will include few of them in my dissertation to make it clear to understand the objective of my research. I will try to briefly explain those concepts in my research proposal. Systematic training cycle is a stage based activity which begins with Training Needs Analysis (TNA) Jill Bowman John P. Wilson, (2008) Jill Bowman John P. Wilson, (2008) point out two definitions regarding (TNA)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Analysing training needs provides a focus and direction for the investment an organization has to make in its people†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Need for training exists in organizations when particular weaknesses need to me overcome by the application of systematic training. Therefore, before commencement of actual training session, it is very important to identify the training needs first. Jill Bowman John P. Wilson, (2008) The systematic training cycle has three stages. 1- Training Design 2- Training Delivery 3- Evaluation Any training programme in an organization has to be designed first once it is designed it needs to be implemented. Implementation is overwhelmed with certain problems such as managers at the first place are more action oriented but suddenly they get busy to engage in the training efforts. Secondly availability of the trainer who also knows the philosophy and objective of the company is difficult. And also scheduling the training programme around the present work is another problem. The final stage of the training and development programme is the evaluation of the programme. Evaluation of the programme helps determine the result. These set of classic theories and approaches will make the research topic more clearly for readers and how these relate to each other in media industry. CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. The core task for any researcher to complete its research is to analyze the problem and to select that which research methodology to follow. It is a challenging endeavour and causes difficulties if the most suitable methodology is not selected. TYPES OF RESEARCH: 1- Primary Research 2- Secondary Research 3- Qualitative Research 4- Quantitative Research PRIMARY RESEARCH: In Primary research a researcher collects the data which doesn’t really exist. It can be done through surveys, questionnaire, interviews and observations. SECONDARY RESEARCH: Secondary research is to examining the existing data, it may be the mixture of information acquire by different authors and scholars and a summary or collation. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: Qualitative research tries to find out the â€Å"WHY† not â€Å"HOW†. It is about investigating the issues, answering the questions and understanding phenomena. The main methods uses in this research are observation, interviews and documentary analysis. It seeks to explore people’s attitudes, behaviours, value system, and lifestyles. It also focuses groups, in depth interviews like many other approaches but qualitative research also involves the analysis of any unstructured material including customer’s feedback forms, reports or media clips. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: Quantitative research technique enumerates the data by applying different mathematical and statistical methods. Quantitative research includes surveys and customers questionnaires. It is about knowing the opinion of the people in a way so you can produce an appropriate fact and statistic to guide you in making decision for future. You can only get the reliable statistical result by surveying people in a fairly large numbers and also ensure they are representative sample of your target market. CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS: At first the data may appear to be a mass of confusing, unrelated, accounts.   But by Studying and coding (often I code the same materials several times just after Collecting them), the researcher begins to create order (Charmaz, 1983: 114) In Data Analysis researcher gathers a raw data and organize it so that useful information can be extracted from it. Raw data can be in variety of types including measurements, surveys, and observations. In data analysis process, the raw data organised in a way which will be useful. For Example, The result of surveys may b tallied so that we can see that how many people answer to the surveys and how they response to the questions. Data Analysis is an important step of the research process. The aim of data analysis is to define the qualitative and quantitative data that provides learner to develop knowledge and skills in data analysis. It also supports the development of critical appraisal skills by considering the critical review. COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: In this stage I will try to analyze the primary data which I will collect from different television channels. I will try to collect data from BBC and Pakistan television channels including GEO TV Network, Express News and AAJ TV. I will also do the surveys and make the questionnaire for the employee working in electronic media industry and also a separate interview questions for HR experts associated with the industry. I will also analyze the data and the information collected through surveys by focusing on the objective of my research and will try to analyse them in a very systematic way, it is very important as it will help me to draw a valid conclusion and clarify the aim and objectives of my research. TIME LINE FOR DISSERTATION: A dissertation is an extensive piece of academic writing. The timeline make sure that every step is completed at a given time. For successful achievement of a dissertation there has to be a time line. Month 1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Month 2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Month 3 TASKS Preliminary Research Define research questions/objectives Work on methodology and finish rough drafts of methodology Library Work Preparing Questionnaires, and survey questions Refine Dissertation Methodology Write literature review Write Introduction Research paper writing References and Bibliography Polish format of research proposal CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION: This research adds value in quite a lot of ways; firstly it contributes a better understanding on some vital attributes of Training and Development specifically in Pakistan and UK electronic media Industry. Secondly it provides insight the attitude and behaviour of an employee in the organization and why they need training. The aim of this study is to investigate the role of training in the efficiency of an employee, in how the training gives confidence to perform there desire task in their routine work.

Find out What the Characteristics of a Sea Squirt Are

Find out What the Characteristics of a Sea Squirt Are A sea squirt may look more like a vegetable, but it is an animal. Sea squirts are more scientifically known as tunicates or ascidians, as they belong to the Class Ascidiacea. Surprisingly, these animals are in the same phylum we are - Phylum Chordata, which is the same phyla that include humans,  whales, sharks, pinnipeds, and fish.   There are over 2,000 species  of sea squirts, and they are found throughout the world. Some species are solitary, while some form large colonies. Characteristics of Sea Squirts Sea squirts have a tunic, or test, which attaches to a substrate   Sea squirts have two siphons - an inhalant siphon, which they use to pull water into their body, and an exhalant siphon, which they use to expel water and wastes. When disturbed, a sea squirt may eject water from its siphon, which is how this creature got its name. If you remove a sea squirt from the water, you may get a wet surprise! Sea squirts  eat by taking in water through their inhalant (incurrent) siphon. Cilia create a current that passes the water through the pharynx, where a layer of mucus traps plankton and other small particles. These are then passed into the stomach, where they are digested. The water carries waste out through the intestines and is expelled via the exhalant (excurrent) siphon.   Sea Squirt Classification Kingdom:  AnimaliaPhylum:  ChordataSubphylum:  UrochordataClass:  Ascidiacea Because sea squirts are in the phylum Chordata, they are related to vertebrates such as humans, whales, and fish. All chordates have a notochord or primitive backbone at some stage. In sea squirts, the notochord is present in the animals larval stage. Where Do Sea Squirts Live? Sea squirts attach to things like piers, docks, boat hulls, rocks, and shells, many in subtidal locations. They may attach singly or in colonies.   Sea Squirt Reproduction In addition to eating, the inhalant siphon is used for reproduction. Most sea squirts are hermaphroditic, and while they produce both eggs and sperm, the eggs stay inside the tunicates body and are fertilized by sperm that enters the body through the inhalant siphon. The resulting larvae look like a tadpole. This tadpole-like creature soon settles to the ocean bottom or to a hard substrate, where it attaches to life and secretes a leathery, cellulose-based substance that makes up the tunic that encases it. The resulting animal is barrel-shaped.   Sea Squirts may also reproduce asexually by budding, in which a new animal splits off or grows out of the original animal. This is how colonies of sea squirts form. References and Further Information Coulombe, D.A. 1984.  The Seaside Naturalist. Simon Schuster. 246pp.Meinkoth, N.A. 1981. National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Seashore Creatures. Alfred A. Knopf: New York.Newberry, T. and R. Grossberg. 2007. Tunicates.  In  Denny, M.W., and S.D. Gaines, eds.  Encyclopedia of Tidepools and Rocky Shores. University of California Press. 705pp.

Vicale Had Propelled His Business above Other Potential Competitors in Essay

Vicale Had Propelled His Business above Other Potential Competitors in the Market - Essay Example The studies represented by the case study are descriptive and survey studies. In study data retrieved from the research is used to make conclusions and decision-making purposes on the report. From the case study, Vicale’s hobby was transformed into a business that rapidly grew due to the research he carried out on the modern day action figures. The constant demand for action figures from friends and visitors to his office, and with the research he conducted on the internet increased his urgency to start the business. Exploratory research conducted enabled him to evaluate the potential market for his goods. He was able to compare his product to the products available in the market. He found that his products were unique and easy to manufacture compared to other products. The competitive advantage Vicale had propelled his business above other potential competitors in the market. His products were modern day heroes compared to the conventional fictional heroes in supernatural sto ries. Their uniqueness enables Vicale to have a competitive product for his e-commerce business (Cooper & Schindler, 2010). The first step is the identification of the business idea to be researched. The creation of action figures was Vicale’s hobby and he had made some for himself before friends urged him to make more. The research question thus arises on the clientele that would buy the product produced by Vicale. Vicale decided to search the internet as his first source of information due to its accessibility. From the internet, he discovered that many companies were in the market producing similar products. The difference was the end product and the technology used. The action figures produced by Vicale were easy to produce because the action figure heads were fitted on a uniform body. He later expanded his sample size by taking his research to the market. In the market, he found that most of the toys in stores were action figures. The action figures had a high market compared to other toys on the market and they could suit both genders. Implementation of his findings is the final step in Vical e’s research where he evaluates his findings and implements (Cooper & Schindler, 2010).

Bill Evans Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Bill Evans - Essay Example His inescapable influence on the very sound of jazz piano has touched virtually everybody of prominence in the field after him—as well as most of his contemporaries, and he remains a monumental model for jazz piano students everywhere, even inspiring a newsletter devoted solely to his music and influence. Speaking of influences, during young Evans’ life, it was Harry—his older brother—who was his first influence. Harry was the first one in the family to take piano lessons, and young Bill began at the piano by mimicking him. It was during this time that the idea of doing something in music that somebody hadnt thought of opened a whole new world to him. This idea became the central one of his musical career. Evans mother was an influence, too. She was an amateur pianist who had piles of old music sheets, which the young Bill read through. gaining breadth and above all speed at sight-reading. This enabled him to explore widely in classical literature, especially 20th century composers. He once remarked, and I quote: "Its just that Ive played such a quantity of piano. Three hours a day in childhood, about six hours a day in college, and at least six hours now. With that, I could afford to develop slowly. Everything Ive learned, Ive learned with feeling being the generating force.† He further added that playing Bach a lot helped him gain control over tone and improved his physical contact with the keyboard. Evans received a music scholarship to Southeastern Louisiana University, and graduated with a degree in piano performance and Music Education in 1950. In college, he discovered the work of Horace Silver, Bud Powell, Nat King Cole, and Lennie Tristano, who was to have a profound influence on him. Later, he took postgraduate studies in composition at the Mannes College of Music in New York, where he also mentored younger music students. As a teacher, personal students of

Response of the In The Mood for Love Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Response of the In The Mood for Love - Essay Example Chow gets a job in Singapore after awhile and is forced to move. He invites his lover Su to join him but she arrives for departure late and Chow leaves without her. In the following year, however, Su goes to Hong Kong too and stops at Chow’s, calls him but remains quiet on phone. Chow later realizes that Su had been to his house when he discovers lipstick stains on his cigarette ashtray. 3 years later, Su inquires from Mrs. Suen if her apartment is available for renting since Mrs. Suen is relocating to the United States. Later on, Chow goes to visit the Koos, his landlords, and finds that they have gone to the Philippines. He asks about the Suen family living next door and is informed that a woman and her son reside there-in. he lives without discovering that the woman in question is Su. The film ends in regret as Chow whispers his sadness of what could have been on the hole in the wall then seals it with mud (In the Mood for Love, 2000). The characters in the film change in search of better careers and also rent a hotel room where they can change their identities away from the increasingly suspicious glances of the neighbors. They do this to share their love, overcome loneliness and the heartache of unfaithful spouses. When they separate, we see them both become nostalgic of their past together and regret their separation, dreaming of re-union someday. Hong Kong films such as In the Mood for Love are not only about martial arts but in them we see various aspects of life such as nostalgia, search of new identities, love and lifestyles in the characters featured there-in. the movie is a heart aching and eye bewitching masterwork. Simply put, the film is not entirely about a story about two lovers but actually depicts life and reconstructs memories of life in the Hong Kong in the early 1960s. The movie that has since garnered a plethora of notable awards is a stylistic masterpiece for numerous

The Amelogenesis Imperfecta Health And Social Care Essay

The Amelogenesis Imperfecta Health And Social Care Essay Your sister has noticed that the teeth of her young son are discoloured and has taken him to the dentist. After a series of tests, the condition of X-linked amelogenesis imperfecta is diagnosed. She asks you, a dental student, to explain the reason for this condition. Particularly, she would like to understand why, in this condition, the enamel is malformed, how the enamel differs from normal and the reason her son, but not her, or her husband is affected. Learning outcomes 1. To explain and understand normal enamel formation. 2. To identify the different types of AI and their presentation. 3. To describe the genetic code and various types of genetic mutations that can be found. 4. To understand and describe the phrases; autosomal dominant inheritance, autosomal recessive inheritance and X-linked recessive inheritance. 5. To identify the genes associated with AI. Introduction Amelogenesis imperfecta is a hereditary disorder that affects tooth development and results in the abnormal formation of tooth enamel. In the above scenario our nephew has been diagnosed with X-linked amelogenesis imperfecta. Below I will explore the proposed learning outcomes and take a closer look at the inherited disease. Explain and understand normal enamel formation. The teeth are composed of three mineralised tissues; enamel, dentine and cementum, which surround the inner unmineralised dental pulp. [1] The dental pulp is the only living part of the tooth and is made up of connective tissue, odontoblasts and nerves. It supplies the outer mineralised layers with a supply of organic compounds and the odontoblasts help with the creation and repair old dentin. The nerves inside the pulp are also very sensitive and alert an individual of any injury or trauma that may occur. If the pulp is exposed to bacteria, infections are likely. [2] [3]http://www.dentalhealth.ie/common/images/legacy/dhp/pic_stuctureoftooth.gif Cementum can be found below the gum line covering the dentin and root of the tooth. It helps to anchor the tooth and protect the root. It is continuously formed through life by cementoblasts in the dental pulp as it prone to destruction. [4] [6] FIG.1 Basic tooth structureDentine is made up of tiny tubules and is the most abundant of the three mineralised tissues. It acts as support beneath the enamel covering and has a protective function to the dental pulp. Dental pulp, cementum and dentine are all derived from the mesencymal origin. [5] [7] FIG.2 Enamel structure The head is orientated superficially and the tail towards the tooth root http://www.kck.usm.my/ppsg/histology/e_2_0.jpg Lastly enamel which is derived from the ectoderm is made up of primarily crystalline calcium phosphate and is the outermost component of the tooth and covers the dental crown. The calcium hydroxyapatite enamel crystals are arranged as keyhole shaped rods that span the full thickness of the enamel layer (see fig.2). The enamel crystals have a parallel orientation and any gaps between the rods are filled with further crystals. Enamel is the hardest most mineralised structure found in the human body. [4] [8] Enamel is formed by the process of amelogenesis after dentine is formed in the process of dentinogenesis. There are four main stages to amelogenesis; Presecretory, secretory, maturation and post maturation. [1] [9] FIG.3 Basic tooth structureThe presecretory stage starts with proliferation of the oral epithelium to form the dental lamina, further proliferation with occur at the site of each future tooth and there will be an outgrowth of cells; this is called the bud stage. This bud of cells then enlarges and develops a cavity in the cap stage and further growth and development will lead to the development of four recognisable layers in the bell stage. Finally the internal enamel epithelium will cease to divide and the dental lamina will degenerate leaving being the early developing tooth. [1] In the secretory stage a partially mineralised enamel matrix is deposited directly on the surface of the previously formed dentin by adjacent secretory stage ameloblasts. [1] The organic partially mineralised matrix is produced as a result of the combined actions of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and secretory granules. The ameloblasts will move away when the first layer of enamel is deposited on the dentine allowing the Tomess process to develop at the secretory pole of each ameloblasts. The Tomess process is responsible for the formation of enamel rods as it lays down the crystals of the enamel matrix. The ameloblasts lie adjacent to the stratum intermedium which contains alkaline phosphotase which is responsible for calcification of the tooth enamel. These ameloblasts continue to produce the enamel matrix until full thickness is reached. [4] Maturation of the partially mineralised enamel matrix involves the removal of organic material and the continuous influx of calcium and phosphate. [4] Maturation stage ameloblasts differentiate from secretory stage ameloblasts and they now contain high numbers of mitochondria to carry out their function as a transport epithelium moving substances into and out of the maturing enamel. The maturing enamel matrix contains four main types of protein; amelogenins, ameloblastins, enamelins and tuftelins. The amelogenins are important in maintaining the spaces between the enamel rods and the ameloblasts control the elongation of the enamel crystals, both of these proteins are removed from the mature enamel. Enamelins undergo cleavage as the enamel matures and will only be found on the surface of the crystals.Tuftelins are present in mature enamel and responsible for hypomineralisation. [1] [4] In the final stage of post maturation the enamel organ will degenerate and the tooth will erupt and become exposed to the oral environment. [1][4] Identify the different types of AI and their presentation. Amelogenesis imperfecta is a group of hereditary disease that affects both the primary and secondary dentition. It results in the enamel becoming hypoplastic, hypomineralised, discoloured and sensitive. [10] There are four main types of amelogenesis imperfecta (AI) that have been identified because of their differences in enamel defects that present in patients. In Hypoplastic AI (type1) the enamel is of normal colour but much thinner as the enamel has not formed to normal thickness, the enamel can also have pits and grooves due to the disturbance in differentiation of ameloblastins. In hypomaturation(type 2) AI the teeth are of normal shape but have a mottled, dark, opaque appearance and chip away easily from the underlying dentine because of a change to the rod structure. Hypocalcified AI (type 3) has poor enamel mineralisation and a defect in its matrix structure making it very soft and susceptible to abrasion; its appearance is dark and chips easily. [1] [11] (see fig.4).http://www.ojrd.com/content/figures/1750-1172-2-17-1-l.jpg Finally hypoplasia (type 4) AI is a combination of hypoplastic and hypomaturation AI. It is characterised by a reduction in enamel thickness and the enamel has a yellow brown mottled appearance. [13] [12] FIG.4 Phenotypic descriptions of amelogenesis imperfecta. hypoplastic (a, b, c, d), dysmineralised (e, f), hypocalcified (g, h) hypomineralised form (e and f) The hypomaturation forms (g, h) Describe the genetic code and various types of genetic mutations that can be found. [15] FIG.5 Genetic information is encoded in the base sequence of DNA molecules as a series of genes. The genetic code describes how base sequences are interpreted into amino acid sequences during protein synthesis via transcription and translation. [14] http://sjesci.wikispaces.com/file/view/DNA-to-codon.gif/155543209/DNA-to-codon.gif The DNA sequence of a gene is divided into a set of three bases called a codon (see fig.5). Each codon gives rise to a particular amino acid or a stop signal. The genetic code is referred to as degenerate because each amino acid is encoded by more than one codon; there are 64 possible combinations of codons from the 4 nucleotide bases (Adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil or thymine) but only 20 different amino acids. (See fig.6)http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-i-CYqAFf61o/TZXYoBQmXrI/AAAAAAAAB5g/5PmMdfOP1PQ/s1600/genetic-code-1.jpg This degeneracy minimises the possible effects of mutations as alterations to the base sequence are less likely to change the amino acid so changes to the protein structure and function are avoided, this is known as a silent mutation. Protein synthesis always starts with the initiation codon AUG which encodes the amino acid methionine but this is later removed. Protein synthesis is terminated by the any of the three stop codons; UAG, UGA and UAA. [14][16] [17] FIG.6 DNA mutations can however cause genetic disorders and cancers. A gene mutation occurs when there is a change in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene; these can be classified as either point mutation which involves the alteration of a single base or gross mutations which often involve the alteration of longer DNA sequences. There are several types of point mutations. Missense mutations occur when a single base is altered or substituted and a different amino acid is produced. Nonsense mutations result in translation ending prematurely because a nucleotide base has been substituted for another resulting in a stop codon and frameshift mutations result after a single base is either deleted or inserted which causes the ribosome to read a new set of codons which will alter the complete amino acid chain produced.(see fig,7) All these changes to the DNA sequence will alter the amino acid chain and subsequently have a serious effect on the protein produced and effect how well it will work or how it will carry out a specific task. Gross mutations have the same implications and also experience insertion and deletion but this is of several bases at a time. [14][18] Figure 4: If the number of bases removed or inserted from a segment of DNA is not a multiple of three (a), a different sequence with a different set of reading frames is transcribed to mRNA (b). [19] FIG.7 Frameshift mutations If the number of bases removed or inserted from a segment of DNA is not a multiple of three (a), a different sequence with a different set of reading frames is transcribed to mRNA (b). Identify the genes associated with AI. Faulty alleles of the genes AMELX, MMP20, KLK-4 and ENAM cause the disease amelogenesis imperfecta. These genes usually provide the genetic instructions for the production of proteins that are essential for the healthy formation of enamel. The mutations of these genes have caused a change in the nucleotide base sequence and as a result the protein structure is altered making them work ineffectively or not at all, in turn this has a variety of effects on the enamel formation. [1] The AMELX gene is located on both of the sex chromosomes, X and Y and provides instructions for the protein amelogenin which is essential for normal tooth development as is separates and supports the hydroxyapatite  crystals as they mature. Mutations in AMELX have been found to cause X-linked amelogenesis imperfecta because of the change in structure to amelogenin. [20] The  ENAM  gene provides instructions for the production of the protein enamelin and mutations of this gene can be found in both patients with autosomal dominant AI and autosomal recessive AI.[21] (see below) MMP20  is responsible for the protein enamelysin mutations in this gene are inherited via the autosomal recessive pathway and KLK-4 mutations are responsible for hypomaturation AI. [22][23] Understand and describe the phrases; autosomal dominant inheritance, autosomal recessive inheritance and X-linked recessive inheritance. Humans have 22 pairs of autosomal homologous pairs of chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes; X and Y. Females have two X chromosomes where as males have one X and one Y chromosome. [18] There are three patterns of single gene disorders that allow faulty alleles (version) to be passed between generations. These include autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive and X-linked. [14]Autosomal dominant genes [24] FIG.8 Autosomal inheritance In autosomal dominant disorders only one faulty allele needs to be passed from the parents to the offspring for them to be affected by the disease. The affected child will also have one normal allele of the gene making them heterozygous. The affected childrens offspring will also have a 50% chance of inheriting the affected allele. (see fig.8)[14] In autosomal recessive disorders however the likeliness of being affected by the disease is only 25% and both parents must possess at least one of the mutated alleles. (See fig.9)This is because in recessive orders both inherited alleles must be mutants to show an effect in the offspring. There still is a 50% chance of being a carrier (if you have one healthy and one effected allele). [14]http://retinaaustraliansw.com.au/images/AutosomalRecessiveInheritance.gif [26] FIG.9 [26] FIG.10 X-linked inheritance Illustration showing X-linked recessive inheritance pattern with carrier mother In X-linked disorders the faulty allele is present on the X chromosome. As males only have one X chromosome they only need one copy of the allele to have the disease, they are hemizygous. Females however must have two copies of the faulty allele (homozygous) to be affected and so are in most case carriers. A female carrier has a 50% chance of their daughters being carriers and a 50% chance of their sons being affected by the disease. (See fig.10)[18] Amelogenesis imperfecta has different modes of inheritance. Hypoplastic  (Type I) and Hypomaturation (Type II) AI can be inherited by all three modes of the above inheritance patterns. Hypocalcified (Type III) AI is not inherited via the X-linked pathway and Hypoplasia (Type IV) AI is only passed between generations via the autosomal dominant pathway and only one faulty allele has to be passed to the offspring for them to be affected by amelogenesis imperfecta. [13] Conclusion Our nephew has been diagnosed with X-linked amelogenesis imperfecta. Taking in account the above information we can now conclude the reason why he but not his parents are affected by the disease is because our sister must be a carrier of the faulty allele of the gene AMELX. Males are hemizygous so the possibility of the father possesing the faulty allele has been ruled out or he would too be affected by the disease. One can also assume that he is suffering from either hypoplastic AI or hypomaturation AI as the other two types are not inherited via the X-linked pathway. The treatment of amelogenesis imperfecta will depend on the severity of the condition but it is usually to treat the aesthetic symptoms so crowns may be given to hide the displeasing characteristics of the malformed enamel.